AKALARAZCACOCTDEFLGAHIIAIDILINKSKYLAMAMDMEMIMNMOMSMTNCNDNENHNJNMNVNYOHOKORPARISCSDTNTXUTVAVTWAWIWVWYDCUSAPRWPISkip to main content
  • About
  • States

      A–H

    • Alabama
    • Alaska
    • Arizona
    • Arkansas
    • California
    • Colorado
    • Connecticut
    • Delaware
    • Florida
    • Georgia
    • Hawai‘i

      I–M

    • Idaho
    • Illinois
    • Indiana
    • Iowa
    • Kansas
    • Kentucky
    • Louisiana
    • Maine
    • Maryland and the District of Columbia
    • Massachusetts
    • Michigan
    • Minnesota
    • Mississippi
    • Missouri
    • Montana

      N–P

    • Nebraska
    • Nevada
    • New Hampshire
    • New Jersey
    • New Mexico
    • New York
    • North Carolina
    • North Dakota
    • Ohio
    • Oklahoma
    • Oregon
    • Pennsylvania
    • Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

      Q–Z

    • Rhode Island
    • South Carolina
    • South Dakota
    • Tennessee
    • Texas
    • Utah
    • Vermont
    • Virginia
    • Washington
    • West Virginia
    • Wisconsin
    • Wyoming
    • Western Pacific Islands
  • Supplemental Materials
    • Abbreviations and Acronyms
    • Recommended Citations
    • Resources
    • Technical Details and Additional Information
  • Downloads
  • Credits

NOAA National Centers
for Environmental Information

State Climate Summaries 2022

NORTH DAKOTA

Key Messages   Narrative   Downloads  

Badlands National Park
Image by Klaus Stebani from Pixabay

Key Message 1

Temperatures in North Dakota have risen more than 2.6°F since the beginning of the 20th century. The annual average temperature has increased at a rate of 0.2°F per decade. This warming is most evident in winter and is reflected in a below average number of very cold days since 2000. Under a higher emissions pathway, historically unprecedented warming is projected during this century.

Key Message 2

Increases in evaporation rates due to rising temperatures may increase the rate of soil moisture loss and the intensity of naturally occurring droughts.

Key Message 3

Precipitation is projected to increase during the colder months. Increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events are also projected.

Photo by JasperdoLicense: CC BY-NC-ND>

NORTH DAKOTA

North Dakota lies in the northern Great Plains, straddling the transition from the moist eastern United States to the semiarid West. Due to its location in the center of the North American continent, far from the moderating effects of the oceans, the state experiences large temperature extremes. Average (1991–2020 normals) January temperatures range from about 4°F in the northeast to 18°F in the southwest, while average July temperatures range from 65°F in the northeast to 72°F in the south. Temperatures of 100°F or higher occur nearly every year and are most prevalent in the drier southwestern and south-central regions. The lack of mountain ranges to the north exposes the state to bitterly cold arctic air masses in the winter.

   

Figure 1

Observed and Projected Temperature Change
Time series of observed and projected temperature change (in degrees Fahrenheit) for North Dakota from 1900 to 2100 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from minus 5.5 to positive 18.4 degrees. Observed annual temperature change from 1900 to 2020 shows variability and ranges from minus 4.4 to positive 5.7 degrees. By the end of the century, projected increases in temperature range from 2.4 to 10.3 degrees under the lower emissions pathway and from 7.2 to 17.3 degrees under the higher pathway.
Figure 1: Observed and projected changes (compared to the 1901–1960 average) in near-surface air temperature for North Dakota. Observed data are for 1900–2020. Projected changes for 2006–2100 are from global climate models for two possible futures: one in which greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase (higher emissions) and another in which greenhouse gas emissions increase at a slower rate (lower emissions). Temperatures in North Dakota (orange line) have risen more than 2.6°F since the beginning of the 20th century. Shading indicates the range of annual temperatures from the set of models. Observed temperatures are generally within the envelope of model simulations of the historical period (gray shading). Historically unprecedented warming is projected during this century. Less warming is expected under a lower emissions future (the coldest end-of-century projections being about 2°F warmer than the historical average; green shading) and more warming under a higher emissions future (the hottest end-of-century projections being about 12°F warmer than the hottest year in the historical record; red shading). Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI.

Temperatures in North Dakota have risen more than 2.6°F since the beginning of the 20th century (Figure 1). The first two decades of this century represent one of the warmest periods on record for North Dakota, with several years (2006, 2012, 2015, and 2016) meeting or exceeding the extreme heat of many of the 1930s Dust Bowl years, when intense drought and poor land management likely exacerbated the hot summer temperatures. Over the last 126 years, North Dakota’s annual average temperature has increased 0.2°F per decade. Warming has occurred in all four seasons but has been largest in the winter, with warming rates more than double the other seasons and greater than those for any other state. The relatively small summer warming is reflected in a below average number of very hot days since 1990 (Figure 2) and no overall trend in the number of warm nights since the beginning of the 20th century (Figure 3). Winter warming is reflected in a below average number of very cold days since 2000 (Figure 4). Additionally, over the past 126 years, winter temperatures have increased by 4.5°F per century, more than three times the summer trend of 1.5°F per century.

   
Observed Number of Very Hot Days
Graph of the observed annual number of very hot days for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 0 to 35 days. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from 0 to about 32 days. Multiyear values also show variability and are mostly near or above the long-term average of 5.6 days between 1900 and 1989. Notably, the 1930 to 1934 and 1935 to 1939 periods are well above average and have the highest multiyear values, more than double the long-term average. Since 1990, multiyear values are all below average. The 2010 to 2014 period has the lowest multiyear value.
Figure 2: Observed annual number of very hot days (maximum temperature of 95°F or higher) for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020. Dots show annual values. Bars show averages over 5-year periods (last bar is a 6-year average). The horizontal black line shows the long-term (entire period) average of 5.6 days. Multiyear averages for the 1930s were the highest on record and more than double the long-term average. Since 1990, however, the number of very hot days has been below average. Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI. Data: GHCN-Daily from 12 long-term stations.
   
Observed Number of Warm Nights
Graph of the observed annual number of warm nights for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 0 to 10 nights. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from 0 to 8.6 nights. Multiyear values also show variability and are mostly near or below the long-term average of 1.0 nights across the entire period. Exceptions include the multiyear periods of the 1930s and late 1980s. The 1950 to 1954 period has the lowest multiyear value and the 1935 to 1939 period the highest.
Figure 3: Observed annual number of warm nights (minimum temperature of 70°F or higher) for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020. Dots show annual values. Bars show averages over 5-year periods (last bar is a 6-year average). The horizontal black line shows the long-term (entire period) average of 1.0 nights. The late 1930s had the highest number of warm nights, more than three times the long-term average. Since 1990, the number of warm nights has been near or below average. Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI. Data: GHCN-Daily from 12 long-term stations.
   
Observed Number of Very Cold Days
Graph of the observed annual number of very cold days for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 0 to 35 days. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from 0 to about 35 days. Multiyear values also show variability and are all near or above the long-term average of 10 days between 1900 and 1924, mostly below average between 1925 and 1964, and all above average between 1965 and 1979. With the exception of the 1995 to 1999 period, multiyear values are all near or below average since 1980. The 1940 to 1944 and 2000 to 2004 periods have the lowest multiyear values, and the 1915 to 1919 and 1935 to 1939 periods, which are well above average, have the highest.
Figure 4: Observed annual number of very cold days (maximum temperature of 0°F or lower) for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020. Dots show annual values. Bars show averages over 5-year periods (last bar is a 6-year average). The horizontal black line shows the long-term (entire period) average of 10 days. The number of very cold days has been below average since 2000 and is indicative of overall winter warming in the region. Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI. Data: GHCN-Daily from 12 long-term stations.

Annual precipitation ranges from less than 16 inches in the northwest to about 24 inches in the southeast. Statewide total annual precipitation varies from year to year, ranging from a low of 8.8 inches in 1936 to a high of 24.4 inches in 2019 (Figure 5). The wettest multiyear periods were in the early 1940s, 1990s, and early 2010s and the driest in the 1930s. The wettest consecutive 5-year interval was 2007–2011, and the driest was 1933–1937. Most of the state’s precipitation falls during the late spring and early summer months, when thunderstorm activity is highest. The most severe thunderstorms can produce hail, tornadoes, or damaging straight-line winds exceeding 75 mph. The frequency of 2-inch extreme precipitation events has increased (Figure 6). Since 1990, the number of these events has been above average, peaking during the most recent 6-year period (2015–2020).

   
Observed Annual Precipitation
Graph of the observed total annual precipitation for North Dakota from 1895 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 5 to 25 inches. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from about 9 to 24 inches. Multiyear values also show variability and are mostly near or below the long-term average of 17.5 inches between 1895 and 1989. Notably, the multiyear periods of the 1930s are well below average and have the lowest multiyear values, and the 1940 to 1944 period is well above average and has the second-highest multiyear value, after the 2010 to 2014 period. Since 1990, multiyear values are all above average.
Figure 5: Observed total annual precipitation for North Dakota from 1895 to 2020. Dots show annual values. Bars show averages over 5-year periods (last bar is a 6-year average). The horizontal black line shows the long-term (entire period) average of 17.5 inches. Total annual precipitation varies widely but has been near or above average since 1990. The wettest consecutive 5-year interval on record was 2007–2011, averaging 20.5 inches, while the driest was 1933–1937, averaging 13.5 inches. Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI. Data: nClimDiv.
   
Observed Number of 2-Inch Extreme Precipitation Events
Graph of the observed annual number of 2-inch extreme precipitation events for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 0 to 1.4 days. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from 0 to 1.3 days. Multiyear values also show variability and are mostly below the long-term average of 0.5 days between 1900 and 1954, all above average between 1955 and 1974, and all below average between 1975 and 1989. Since 1990, multiyear values are all near or above average and showing an upward trend since the early 2000s. The 1905 to 1909 period has the lowest multiyear value and the 2015 to 2020 period the highest.
Figure 6: Observed annual number of 2-inch extreme precipitation events (days with precipitation of 2 inches or more) for North Dakota from 1900 to 2020. Dots show annual values. Bars show averages over 5-year periods (last bar is a 6-year average). The horizontal black line shows the long-term (entire period) average of 0.5 days. A typical reporting station experiences an event about once every 2 years. The number of 2-inch extreme precipitation events has been near to above average since 1990. Sources: CISESS and NOAA NCEI. Data: GHCN-Daily from 12 long-term stations.

Compared to other northern states, North Dakota receives less snowfall, averaging 30 to 55 inches annually. However, due to the state’s northern location, winter storm systems can be accompanied by exceptionally severe conditions, including heavy snows, high winds, and low wind chill temperatures. The probability of a blizzard occurring in any given year in North Dakota—greater than 50%—is one of the highest in the Nation. During the winter of 1996–97, North Dakota experienced multiple blizzards and winter storms, which contributed to seasonal snowfalls of more than 100 inches in some parts of the state.

North Dakota is highly prone to both flooding and drought. The Red River Valley is one of the most flood-prone areas in the United States due to the river’s low gradient and northward flow. The spring thaw causes snow and river ice in the south to melt prior to the downstream river channel to the north, creating natural ice jams, flooding of the upstream river, and backfill of runoff into the river’s tributaries. In addition to snowmelt, recharge of soil moisture due to fall precipitation and direct runoff of spring rainfall from saturated soils contribute to spring floods. Based on more than 100 years of river-stage data collected in Fargo, the Red River has exceeded major flood stages 18 times. In the spring of 1997, the melting of record snowfall caused record floods along the river. These records were exceeded by the 2009 floods, when the river at Fargo reached its highest level in recorded history. In June 2011, record-breaking flood levels on the Souris River caused major property damage, including the flooding of 4,000 homes in Minot. Another flood-prone area is Devils Lake, where rapidly rising waters since the early 1990s have destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses and inundated thousands of acres of productive farmland. Since 1993, state and federal funds totaling more than $1 billion have been spent on flood-mitigation efforts in the region. If lake levels were to rise substantially from current levels, an uncontrolled natural spill to the Sheyenne River could occur, potentially causing extensive downstream flooding, channel erosion, and water quality degradation (Figure 7). Drought has been a regular occurrence in the state. The 2017 Northern Plains drought, which primarily impacted North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana, as well as adjacent Canadian Prairies, was devastating for livestock and agricultural production. The drought emerged in the spring and rapidly spread and intensified throughout the summer, leading to crop failure, the culling of livestock herds, widespread wildfires, low water supplies, and losses exceeding $2.5 billion.

   
Devil's Lake Water Levels
Annual time series of the average water levels for Devils Lake at Creel Bay, North Dakota, from 1930 to 2020 as described in the caption. Y-axis values range from 1,400 to 1,460 feet. The light blue line plots measurements from the old gauge site and the dark blue line from the new gauge site. Red dashed lines at 1,446 feet and 1,458 feet show the levels at which water will overflow to Stump Lake and the Sheyenne River, respectively. Annual values show year-to-year variability and range from about 1,400 to about 1,455 feet. Water levels dropped during the 1930s but then, despite several fluctuations, rose gradually until the early 1990s. They then rose rapidly and exceeded the Stump Lake overflow level in the early 2000s, reaching a peak in the late 2000s. Since then, water levels have dropped off slightly but still remain above the level of overflow to Stump Lake.
Figure 7: Annual time series of the average water level of Devils Lake at Creel Bay from 1930 to 2020. Lake levels have fluctuated over time but have been steadily rising overall since the 1940s. Water began spilling from Devils Lake to Stump Lake in 1999, and in 2007, Devils Lake and Stump Lake essentially became one continuous body of water. If lake levels were to rise substantially from current levels, an uncontrolled natural spill to the Sheyenne River could occur. Source: USGS NWIS.

Under a higher emissions pathway, historically unprecedented warming is projected during this century (Figure 1). Even under a lower emissions pathway, annual average temperatures are projected to most likely exceed historical record levels by the middle of the century. However, a large range of temperature increases is projected under both pathways, and under the lower pathway, a few projections are only slightly warmer than historical records. Although the frequency of hot summer temperatures has not increased, continued overall warming is expected to intensify heat waves, while cold waves are projected to decrease in intensity.

Although current observations do not show a positive trend in cold-season precipitation, projections suggest that winter precipitation will increase (Figure 8), even under a lower emissions pathway. Increased cold-season precipitation can impact North Dakota’s agricultural economy both positively (increased soil moisture) and negatively (loss of soil nutrients, planting delays, and yield losses). Extreme precipitation events are also projected to increase in frequency and intensity, potentially leading to increased runoff and flooding, which can reduce water quality and erode soils.

   
Projected Change in Winter Precipitation
Map of the contiguous United States showing the projected changes in total winter precipitation by the middle of this century as described in the caption. Values range from less than minus 20 to greater than positive 15 percent. Winter precipitation is projected to increase across most of the country, with the exception of the far southern portions of the southwestern and Gulf states. The greatest, statistically significant increases are projected for the Northern Great Plains, the Midwest, and the Northeast. North Dakota is projected to see an increase of 10 to 15 percent across the western half of the state and an increase of greater than 15 percent across the eastern half. Statistically significant increases are projected for eastern North Dakota and for a portion of the northwestern part of the state.
Figure 8: Projected changes in total annual precipitation (%) for the middle of the 21st century compared to the late 20th century under a higher emissions pathway. Hatching represents areas where the majority of climate models indicate a statistically significant change. Winter precipitation for North Dakota is projected to increase in the range of 10% to more than 15% by 2050. Spring precipitation is also projected to increase. North Dakota is part of a large area in the northern and central United States with projected increases. Sources: CISESS and NEMAC. Data: CMIP5.

The intensity of droughts is projected to increase. Droughts are a natural part of the climate system, and because precipitation increases are projected to occur during the cooler months, North Dakota will remain vulnerable to periodic drought. Increases in evaporation rates due to rising temperatures may increase the rate of soil moisture loss and the intensity of naturally occurring droughts. Wildfires may also become more common from mid-summer through early fall.

Details on observations and projections are available on the Technical Details and Additional Information page.

Lead Authors
Rebekah Frankson, Cooperative Institute for Satellite Earth System Studies (CISESS)
Kenneth E. Kunkel, Cooperative Institute for Satellite Earth System Studies (CISESS)
Contributing Authors
Laura E. Stevens, Cooperative Institute for Satellite Earth System Studies (CISESS)
David R. Easterling, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information
Martha Shulski, Nebraska State Climate Office, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Adnan Akyuz, North Dakota State Climate Office, North Dakota State University
Natalie A. Umphlett, NOAA High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Crystal J. Stiles, NOAA High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Recommended Citation
Frankson, R., K.E. Kunkel, L.E. Stevens, D.R. Easterling, M. Shulski, A. Akyuz, N.A. Umphlett, and C.J. Stiles, 2022: North Dakota State Climate Summary 2022. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 150-ND. NOAA/NESDIS, Silver Spring, MD, 5 pp.

RESOURCES

  • Coleman, J.S.M. and R.M. Schwartz, 2017: An updated blizzard climatology of the contiguous United States (1959–2014): An examination of spatiotemporal trends. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 56 (1), 173–187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0350.1
  • Enz, J.W., 2003: North Dakota Topographic, Climatic, and Agricultural Overview. North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 3 pp. https://www.ndsu.edu/fileadmin/ndsco/documents/ndclimate.pdf
  • EPA, 2016: What Climate Change Means for North Dakota. EPA 430-F-16-036. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/climate-change-nd.pdf
  • Hayhoe, K., D.J. Wuebbles, D.R. Easterling, D.W. Fahey, S. Doherty, J. Kossin, W. Sweet, R. Vose, and M. Wehner, 2018: Our changing climate. In: Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 72–144. https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/2/
  • Jencso, K., B. Parker, M. Downey, T. Hadwen, A. Howell, J. Rattling Leaf, L. Edwards, A. Akyuz, D. Kluck, D. Peck, M. Rath, M. Syner, N. Umphlett, H. Wilmer, V. Barnes, D. Clabo, B. Fuchs, M. He, S. Johnson, J. Kimball, D. Longknife, D. Martin, N. Nikerson, J. Sage, and T. Fransen, 2019: Flash Drought: Lessons Learned from the 2017 Drought Across the U.S. Northern Plains and Canadian Prairies. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Integrated Drought Information System, Boulder, CO, 76 pp. https://www.drought.gov/sites/default/files/2020-09/NIDIS_LL_FlashDrought_2017_Final_6.6.2019.pdf
  • Kunkel, K.E., D.R. Easterling, K. Redmond, and K. Hubbard, 2003: Temporal variations of extreme precipitation events in the United States: 1895–2000. Geophysical Research Letters, 30 (17). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018052
  • Kunkel, K.E., L.E. Stevens, S.E. Stevens, L. Sun, E. Janssen, D. Wuebbles, M.C. Kruk, D.P. Thomas, M.D. Shulski, N.A. Umphlett, K.G. Hubbard, K. Robbins, L. Romolo, A. Akyuz, T.B. Pathak, T.R. Bergantino, and J.G. Dobson, 2013: Regional Climate Trends and Scenarios for the U.S. National Climate Assessment Part 4. Climate of the U.S. Great Plains. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 142-4. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, Silver Spring, MD, 91 pp. https://nesdis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/migrated/NOAA_NESDIS_Tech_Report_142-4-Climate_of_the_US_Great_Plains.pdf
  • MRCC, n.d.: cli-MATE: MRCC Application Tools Environment. Midwestern Regional Climate Center, Urbana-Champaign, IL. https://mrcc.illinois.edu/CLIMATE/
  • ND DWR, n.d.: Devils Lake Flood Mitigation. North Dakota Department of Water Resources, Bismarck, ND. https://www.swc.nd.gov/project_development/dl_flood_mitigation.html
  • NOAA NCDC, n.d.: Climate of North Dakota. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, 5 pp. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/climate-normals-deprecated/access/clim60/states/Clim_ND_01.pdf
  • NOAA NCEI, n.d.: Climate at a Glance, Statewide Time Series, North Dakota. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Environmental Information, Asheville, NC, accessed April 9, 2021. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/statewide/time-series/32/
  • NOAA NWS, n.d.: Flood Damages Suffered in the United States During Water Year 2009. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, MD, 8 pp. https://www.weather.gov/media/water/WY09%20Flood%20Loss%20Summary.pdf
  • NOAA RCCs ACIS, n.d.: Gridded NCEI Normals Mapper [North Dakota]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Regional Climate Centers, Applied Climate Information System. https://ncei-normals-mapper.rcc-acis.org/
  • Nustad, R.A., K.A. Kolars, A.V. Vecchia, and K.R. Ryberg, 2016: 2011 Souris River Flood—Will It Happen Again? Fact Sheet 2016-3073. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/fs20163073
  • Schwartz, R.M. and T.W. Schmidlin, 2002: Climatology of blizzards in the conterminous United States, 1959–2000. Journal of Climate, 15 (13), 1765–1772. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1765:COBITC>2.0.CO;2
  • Shafer, M., D. Ojima, J.M. Antle, D. Kluck, R.A. McPherson, S. Petersen, B. Scanlon, and K. Sherman, 2014: Great Plains. In: Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. Melillo, J.M., T.C. Richmond, and G.W. Yohe, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 441–461. http://dx.doi.org/10.7930/J0D798BC 
  • USGS NWIS, n.d.: USGS 05056500 Devils Lake NR Devils Lake, ND [site inventory]. U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Information System https://www.google.com/url?q=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/inventory/?site_no%3D05056500%26agency_cd%3DUSGS&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1633621557894000&usg=AOvVaw2vtZAErqFrekylpTjZ7u3c
  • Vecchia, A.V., 2008: Climate Simulation and Flood Risk Analysis for 2008–40 for Devils Lake, North Dakota. Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5011. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, 36 pp. http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20085011
  • Vose, R.S., D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, A.N. LeGrande, and M.F. Wehner, 2017: Temperature changes in the United States. In: Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I. Wuebbles, D.J., D.W. Fahey, K.A. Hibbard, D.J. Dokken, B.C. Stewart, and T.K. Maycock, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 185–206. http://doi.org/10.7930/J0N29V45

Title

NOAA logo   CISESS

Contact NOAA’s Technical Support Unit

This website contains copyrighted images.

NCICS Department of Commerce logo